Teknologi
See also: Technology during World War I and Weapons of World War I Lihat juga: Teknologi selama Perang Dunia I dan Senjata Perang Dunia I
In 1914, cannons were positioned in the front line and fired directly at their targets. Pada tahun 1914, meriam yang ditempatkan di garis depan dan menembak langsung pada sasaran mereka. By 1917, indirect fire with guns (as well as mortars and even machine guns) was commonplace, using new techniques for spotting and ranging, notably aircraft and the often overlooked field telephone . Counter-battery missions became commonplace, also, and sound detection was used to locate enemy batteries. Pada 1917, api tidak langsung dengan senjata (serta mortir dan bahkan senapan mesin) adalah biasa, menggunakan teknik baru untuk bercak dan mulai, khususnya pesawat udara dan sering diabaikan telepon lapangan . Counter-baterai misi menjadi biasa, juga, dan deteksi suara adalah digunakan untuk menemukan baterai musuh.
Germany was far ahead of the Allies in utilising heavy indirect fire. Jerman jauh di depan Sekutu dalam memanfaatkan api tidak langsung berat. She employed 150 and 210 mm howitzers in 1914 when the typical French and British guns were only 75 and 105 mm. Dia mempekerjakan 150 dan 210 mm howitzer pada tahun 1914 ketika senjata khas Perancis dan Inggris hanya 75 dan 105 mm. The British had a 6 inch (152 mm) howitzer, but it was so heavy it had to be hauled to the field in pieces and assembled. Inggris memiliki 6 inch (152 mm) howitzer, tapi begitu berat itu harus diangkut ke lapangan di potongan dan dirakit. Germans also fielded Austrian 305 mm and 420 mm guns, and already by the beginning of the war had inventories of various calibers of Minenwerfer ideally suited for trench warfare. [ 137 ] Jerman juga menerjunkan Austria 305 mm dan 420 mm senjata, dan sudah pada awal perang telah persediaan berbagai kaliber Minenwerfer ideal untuk perang parit. [137]
Much of the combat involved trench warfare , where hundreds often died for each yard gained. Sebagian besar pertempuran yang terlibat perang parit , di mana ratusan sering mati untuk setiap halaman diperoleh. Many of the deadliest battles in history occurred during the First World War. Banyak dari pertempuran paling mematikan dalam sejarah terjadi selama Perang Dunia Pertama. Such battles include Ypres , the Marne , Cambrai , the Somme , Verdun , and Gallipoli . pertempuran tersebut termasuk Ypres , yang Marne , Cambrai , yang Somme , Verdun , dan Gallipoli . The Haber process of nitrogen fixation was employed to provide the German forces with a constant supply of gunpowder, in the face of British naval blockade. [ 138 ] Artillery was responsible for the largest number of casualties [ 139 ] and consumed vast quantities of explosives. Para proses Haber dari fiksasi nitrogen dipekerjakan untuk menyediakan pasukan Jerman dengan pasokan konstan mesiu, dalam menghadapi blokade laut Inggris. [138] Artileri bertanggung jawab untuk jumlah terbesar korban [139] dan dikonsumsi sejumlah besar bahan peledak. The large number of head-wounds caused by exploding shells and fragmentation forced the combatant nations to develop the modern steel helmet , led by the French, who introduced the Adrian helmet in 1915. Jumlah besar kepala-luka akibat ledakan kerang dan fragmentasi memaksa bangsa-bangsa pejuang untuk mengembangkan baja modern helm , dipimpin oleh Prancis, yang memperkenalkan helm Adrian pada tahun 1915. It was quickly followed by the Brodie helmet , worn by British Imperial and US troops, and in 1916 by the distinctive German Stahlhelm , a design, with improvements, still in use today. Hal ini segera diikuti oleh helm Brodie , dipakai oleh British Imperial dan pasukan AS, dan tahun 1916 oleh khas Jerman Stahlhelm , desain, dengan perbaikan, masih digunakan sampai sekarang.
| " Gas! Gas! Quick, boys!... Fitting the clumsy helmets just in time; But someone still was yelling out and stumbling, And flound'ring like a man in fire or lime... Dim, through the misty panes and thick green light, As under a green sea, I saw him drowning." - Wilfred Owen , DULCE ET DECORUM EST , 1917 [ 140 ] ! Gas Gas! "Cepat, anak laki-laki;! ... Fitting kikuk helm tepat pada waktunya Tapi seseorang masih berteriak keluar dan sandungan, Dan flound'ring seperti orang dalam api atau kapur ... Dim, melalui panel berkabut dan lampu hijau tebal, Seperti di bawah laut hijau, aku melihatnya tenggelam -. " Wilfred Owen , dulce ET kesopanan EST, 1917 [140] |
The most powerful land-based weapons were railway guns weighing hundreds of tons apiece. Berdasarkan senjata ampuh tanah-sebagian besar kereta api senjata berat ratusan ton masing-masing. These were nicknamed Big Berthas , even though the namesake was not a railway gun. Ini adalah julukan Big Berthas , meskipun senama itu bukan pistol kereta api. Germany developed the Paris Gun , able to bombard Paris from over 100 kilometres (60 mi), though shells were relatively light at 94 kilograms (210 lb). Jerman mengembangkan Gun Paris , mampu membombardir Paris dari lebih dari 100 kilometer (60 mil), meskipun kulit relatif ringan di 94 kilogram (210 lb). While the Allies had railway guns, German models severely out-ranged and out-classed them. Sementara Sekutu memiliki senjata kereta api, model Jerman sangat luar berkisar dan keluar-digolongkan mereka.
Fixed-wing aircraft were first used militarily by the Italians in Libya 23 October 1911 during the Italo-Turkish War for reconnaissance, soon followed by the dropping of grenades and aerial photography the next year. Sayap pesawat Tetap pertama kali digunakan oleh militer Italia di Libya 23 Oktober 1911 selama Perang Turki-Italo untuk pengintaian, segera diikuti dengan menjatuhkan granat dan foto udara tahun berikutnya. By 1914 the military utility was obvious. Dengan utilitas militer tahun 1914 sudah jelas. They were initially used for reconnaissance and ground attack . Mereka awalnya digunakan untuk pengintaian dan serangan darat . To shoot down enemy planes, anti-aircraft guns and fighter aircraft were developed. Strategic bombers were created, principally by the Germans and British, though the former used Zeppelins as well. [ 144 ] Towards the end of the conflict, aircraft carriers were used for the first time, with HMS Furious launching Sopwith Camels in a raid to destroy the Zeppelin hangars at Tondern in 1918. [ 145 ] Untuk menembak jatuh pesawat musuh, senjata anti-pesawat dan pesawat tempur dikembangkan. Strategis pembom diciptakan, terutama oleh Jerman dan Inggris, meskipun yang digunakan mantan zeppelin juga. [144] Menjelang berakhirnya konflik, kapal induk yang digunakan untuk pertama kalinya, dengan HMS Furious meluncurkan Sopwith Unta dalam serangan untuk menghancurkan hanggar Zeppelin di Tondern pada 1918. [145]
German U-boats ( submarines ) were deployed after the war began. Jerman U-boat ( kapal selam ) ditempatkan setelah perang dimulai. Alternating between restricted and unrestricted submarine warfare in the Atlantic, they were employed by the Kaiserliche Marine in a strategy to deprive the British Isles of vital supplies. Bergantian antara peperangan kapal selam tak terbatas dan dibatasi di Atlantik, mereka dipekerjakan oleh Marine Kaiserliche dalam strategi untuk mencabut Kepulauan Inggris pasokan vital. The deaths of British merchant sailors and the seeming invulnerability of U-boats led to the development of depth charges (1916), hydrophones (passive sonar , 1917), blimps , hunter-killer submarines ( HMS R&-1 , 1917), forward-throwing anti-submarine weapons , and dipping hydrophones (the latter two both abandoned in 1918). [ 146 ] To extend their operations, the Germans proposed supply submarines (1916). Kematian para pelaut pedagang Inggris dan kekebalan tampak U-kapal menyebabkan perkembangan biaya kedalaman (1916), hydrophones (pasif sonar , 1917), blimps , pemburu-pembunuh kapal selam ( HMS R & -1 , 1917), forward- melemparkan senjata anti-kapal selam , dan mencelupkan hydrophones (dua terakhir baik ditinggalkan pada 1918). [146] Untuk memperluas operasi mereka, Jerman diusulkan pasokan kapal selam (1916). Most of these would be forgotten in the interwar period until World War II revived the need. Sebagian besar akan terlupakan dalam periode antar hingga Perang Dunia II kembali kebutuhan.
Manned observation balloons , floating high above the trenches, were used as stationary reconnaissance platforms, reporting enemy movements and directing artillery. Berawak balon pengamatan , mengambang tinggi di atas parit, digunakan sebagai platform pengintaian stasioner, pelaporan gerakan musuh dan mengarahkan artileri. Balloons commonly had a crew of two, equipped with parachutes . [ 147 ] If there was an enemy air attack, the crew could parachute to safety. Balon biasanya memiliki awak dari dua, dilengkapi dengan parasut . [147] Jika ada serangan udara musuh, para kru bisa parasut untuk keselamatan. At the time, parachutes were too heavy to be used by pilots of aircraft (with their marginal power output) and smaller versions would not be developed until the end of the war; they were also opposed by British leadership, who feared they might promote cowardice. [ 148 ] Recognised for their value as observation platforms, balloons were important targets of enemy aircraft. Pada waktu itu, parasut terlalu berat untuk digunakan oleh pilot pesawat (dengan output daya marginal mereka) dan versi yang lebih kecil tidak akan berkembang sampai akhir perang, mereka juga ditentang oleh kepemimpinan Inggris, yang takut mereka mungkin mempromosikan sikap pengecut . [148] Dikenal untuk nilai mereka sebagai platform observasi, balon menjadi sasaran penting dari pesawat musuh.
Another new weapon, flamethrowers , were first used by the German army and later adopted by other forces. Lain senjata baru, penyembur api , pertama kali digunakan oleh tentara Jerman dan kemudian diadopsi oleh kekuatan-kekuatan lainnya. Although not of high tactical value, they were a powerful, demoralising weapon and caused terror on the battlefield. Meskipun tidak nilai taktis tinggi, mereka senjata, kuat melemahkan semangat dan mengakibatkan teror di medan perang. It was a dangerous weapon to wield, as its heavy weight made operators vulnerable targets. Ini adalah senjata yang berbahaya untuk memegang, sebagai beban berat yang membuat target operator rentan.
Trench railways evolved to supply the enormous quantities of food, water, and ammunition required to support large numbers of soldiers in areas where conventional transportation systems had been destroyed. Palung perkeretaapian berevolusi untuk memasok jumlah besar makanan, air, dan amunisi yang diperlukan untuk mendukung sejumlah besar tentara di daerah di mana sistem transportasi konvensional telah dihancurkan. Internal combustion engines and improved traction systems for wheeled vehicles eventually rendered trench railways obsolete. mesin pembakaran internal dan sistem traksi diperbaiki untuk kendaraan roda kereta api akhirnya diberikan parit usang.
War crimes Kejahatan perang
Genocide and ethnic cleansing Genosida dan pembersihan etnis
Ottoman Empire Kekaisaran Ottoman
Main article: Ottoman casualties of World War I Artikel utama: Ottoman korban Perang Dunia I
See also: Armenian Genocide , Assyrian Genocide , Greek genocide , and Genocide denial Lihat juga: Genosida Armenia , Assyria Genosida , genosida Yunani , dan penolakan Genosida
The ethnic cleansing of the Ottoman Empire's Christian population, with the most prominent among them being the deportation and massacres of Armenians (similar policies were enacted against the Assyrians and Ottoman Greeks ) during the final years of the Ottoman Empire is considered genocide . [ 149 ] The Ottomans saw the entire Armenian population as an enemy [ 150 ] that had chosen to side with Russia at the beginning of the war. [ 151 ] In early 1915, a number of Armenian nationalist groups, such as the Armenakan , Dashnak and Hunchak organisations, joined the Russian forces, and the Ottoman government used this as a pretext to issue the Tehcir Law . Para pembersihan etnis dari Kekaisaran Kristen populasi Utsmani, dengan yang paling menonjol di antara mereka menjadi deportasi dan pembantaian dari Armenia (kebijakan serupa diberlakukan terhadap Asyur dan Ottoman Yunani ) selama tahun-tahun terakhir dari Kekaisaran Ottoman dianggap genosida . [149] Dinasti Utsmani melihat seluruh populasi Armenia sebagai musuh [150] yang telah memilih untuk sisi dengan Rusia pada awal perang. [151] Pada tahun 1915 awal, sejumlah kelompok nasionalis Armenia, seperti Armenakan , Dashnak dan Hunchak organisasi , bergabung dengan pasukan Rusia, dan pemerintah Ottoman menggunakan ini sebagai dalih untuk mengeluarkan UU Tehcir . This authorised the deportation of the Armenians from eastern Anatolia to Syria between 1915 and 1917. Tersebut memberikan wewenang kepada deportasi dari Armenia dari Anatolia timur ke Suriah antara 1915 dan 1917. The exact number of deaths is unknown, although Balakian gives a range of 250,000 to 1.5 million for the deaths of Armenians, [ 152 ] the International Association of Genocide Scholars estimates over 1 million. [ 149 ] The government of Turkey has consistently rejected charges of genocide , arguing that those who died were victims of inter-ethnic fighting, famine or disease during the First World War. [ 153 ] Jumlah kematian yang tepat tidak diketahui, meskipun Balakian memberikan berbagai 250.000 menjadi 1,5 juta untuk kematian Armenia, [152] dari Asosiasi Internasional Ulama Genosida memperkirakan lebih dari 1 juta. [149] Pemerintah Turki telah secara konsisten menolak tuduhan genosida , dengan alasan bahwa mereka yang meninggal menjadi korban pertempuran antar etnis, kelaparan atau penyakit selama Perang Dunia Pertama. [153] Russian Empire Kekaisaran Rusia
Main article: Anti-Jewish pogroms in the Russian Empire Artikel utama: pogrom Anti-Yahudi di Kekaisaran Rusia
See also: Russian occupation of Eastern Galicia, 1914-1915 , Volhynia , and Volga Germans Lihat juga: pendudukan Rusia Timur Galicia, 1914-1915 , Volhynia , dan Volga Jerman
Approximately 200,000 Germans living in Volhynia and about 600,000 Jews were deported by the Russian authorities. [ 154 ] [ 155 ] [ 156 ] In 1916, an order was issued to deport around 650,000 Volga Germans to the east as well, but the Russian Revolution prevented this from being carried out. [ 157 ] Many pogroms accompanied the Revolution of 1917 and the ensuing Russian Civil War , 60,000–200,000 civilian Jews were killed in the atrocities throughout the former Russian Empire. [ 158 ] [ 159 ] Sekitar 200.000 orang Jerman yang tinggal di Volhynia dan sekitar 600.000 orang Yahudi dideportasi oleh pihak berwenang Rusia. [154] [155] [156] Pada tahun 1916, sebuah perintah dikeluarkan untuk mendeportasi sekitar 650.000 Volga Jerman ke timur juga, tetapi Revolusi Rusia dicegah ini dari sedang dilaksanakan. [157] Banyak pogrom disertai Revolusi tahun 1917 dan berikutnya Perang Saudara Rusia , 60,000-200,000 Yahudi sipil tewas dalam kekejaman seluruh mantan Kekaisaran Rusia. [158] [159] Rape of Belgium Pemerkosaan dari Belgia
Main article: Rape of Belgium Artikel utama: Pemerkosaan dari Belgia
In Belgium, German troops, in fear of French and Belgian guerrilla fighters, or francs-tireurs , massacred townspeople in Andenne (211 dead), Tamines (384 dead), and Dinant (612 dead). Di Belgia, tentara Jerman, dalam ketakutan gerilya pejuang Belgia dan Perancis, atau -franc tireurs , warga kota dibantai di Andenne (211 meninggal), Tamines (384 meninggal), dan Dinant (612 mati). On 25 August 1914, the Germans set fire to the town of Leuven , burned the library containing about 230,000 books, killed 209 civilians and forced 42,000 to evacuate. Pada tanggal 25 Agustus 1914, Jerman membakar kota Leuven , membakar perpustakaan yang berisi sekitar 230.000 buku, menewaskan 209 warga sipil dan 42.000 terpaksa mengungsi. These actions brought worldwide condemnation. [ 160 ] Tindakan ini membawa kecaman seluruh dunia. [160] Soldiers' experiences Tentara 'pengalaman
Main articles: List of surviving veterans of World War I , World War I casualties , Commonwealth War Graves Commission , and American Battle Monuments Commission Artikel utama: Daftar bertahan veteran Perang Dunia I , Perang Dunia I korban , Commonwealth War Graves Komisi , dan Amerika Monumen Pertempuran Komisi
Prisoners of war Tawanan perang
Germany held 2.5 million prisoners; Russia held 2.9 million; while Britain and France held about 720,000. Jerman diadakan 2,5 juta tahanan; Rusia diselenggarakan 2,9 juta, sedangkan Inggris dan Perancis yang diadakan sekitar 720.000. Most were captured just prior to the Armistice. Sebagian besar ditangkap sesaat sebelum Gencatan Senjata tersebut. The US held 48,000. AS diselenggarakan 48.000. The most dangerous moment was the act of surrender, when helpless soldiers were sometimes gunned down. [ 164 ] [ 165 ] Once prisoners reached a camp, in general, conditions were satisfactory (and much better than in World War II), thanks in part to the efforts of the International Red Cross and inspections by neutral nations. Yang saat yang paling berbahaya adalah tindakan menyerah, ketika tentara tak berdaya kadang-kadang ditembak mati. [164] [165] Setelah mencapai kamp tahanan, secara umum, kondisi sangat memuaskan (dan jauh lebih baik daripada di Perang Dunia II), sebagian berkat dengan upaya dari Palang Merah Internasional dan inspeksi oleh negara-negara netral. Conditions were terrible in Russia, starvation was common for prisoners and civilians alike; about 15–20% of the prisoners in Russia died. Kondisi yang mengerikan di Rusia, kelaparan itu biasa bagi tahanan dan warga sipil sama, sekitar 15-20% dari tahanan di Rusia meninggal. In Germany food was scarce, but only 5% died. [ 166 ] [ 167 ] [ 168 ] Di Jerman makanan langka, tetapi hanya 5% meninggal. [166] [167] [168]
The Ottoman Empire often treated POWs poorly. [ 169 ] Some 11,800 British Empire soldiers, most of them Indians, became prisoners after the Siege of Kut , in Mesopotamia , in April 1916, 4,250 died in captivity. [ 170 ] Although many were in very bad condition when captured, Ottoman officers forced them to march 1,100 kilometres (684 mi) to Anatolia . Kekaisaran Ottoman POW sering diperlakukan buruk. [169] Beberapa British Empire 11.800 tentara, kebanyakan dari mereka India, menjadi tahanan setelah Pengepungan Kut , di Mesopotamia , pada bulan April 1916, 4.250 meninggal di penangkaran. [170] Meskipun banyak berada di sangat kondisi buruk ketika tertangkap, petugas Utsmani memaksa mereka untuk berbaris 1.100 kilometer (684 mil) ke Anatolia . A survivor said: "we were driven along like beasts, to drop out was to die." [ 171 ] The survivors were then forced to build a railway through the Taurus Mountains . selamat A berkata: "kami diusir bersama seperti binatang, putus adalah untuk mati." [171] yang selamat kemudian dipaksa untuk membangun kereta api melalui Pegunungan Taurus .
In Russia, where the prisoners from the Czech Legion of the Austro-Hungarian army were released in 1917 they re-armed themselves and briefly became a military and diplomatic force during the Russian Civil War. Di Rusia, di mana para tahanan dari Legiun Ceko dari Austro-Hongaria tentara yang dirilis pada tahun 1917 mereka kembali mempersenjatai diri mereka dan secara singkat dan diplomatik menjadi kekuatan militer selama Perang Saudara Rusia.
While the Allied prisoners of the Central Powers were quickly sent home at the end of active hostilities, the same treatment was not granted to Central Power prisoners of the Allies and Russia, many of which had to serve as forced labor , eg in France until 1920. Sedangkan tahanan Sekutu dari Blok Sentral dengan cepat dikirim pulang pada akhir permusuhan aktif, perlakuan yang sama tidak diberikan kepada Power tahanan Sentral Sekutu dan Rusia, banyak yang harus melayani sebagai kerja paksa , misalnya di Perancis sampai tahun 1920 . They were only released after many approaches by the Red Cross to the Allied Supreme Council . [ 172 ] There were still German prisoners being held in Russia as late as 1924. [ 173 ] Mereka hanya dibebaskan setelah banyak pendekatan oleh Palang Merah ke Dewan Tertinggi Sekutu . [172] Masih ada tahanan Jerman yang diadakan di Rusia hingga akhir tahun 1924. [173]
Military attachés and war correspondents Atase militer dan koresponden perang
Main article: Military attachés and war correspondents in the First World War Artikel utama: atase militer dan perang koresponden di Perang Dunia Pertama
Military and civilian observers from every major power closely followed the course of the war. pengamat militer dan sipil dari setiap kekuatan utama diikuti jalannya perang. Many were able to report on events from a perspective somewhat akin to modern " embedded " positions within the opposing land and naval forces. Banyak mampu melaporkan kejadian dari perspektif yang agak mirip dengan modern " tertanam "posisi di dalam tanah yang berlawanan dan angkatan laut. These military attachés and other observers prepared voluminous first-hand accounts of the war and analytical papers. Ini atase militer dan pengamat lain disiapkan rekening produktif tangan pertama dari perang dan kertas analitis. For example, former US Army Captain Granville Fortescue followed the developments of the Gallipoli Campaign from an embedded perspective within the ranks of the Turkish defenders; and his report was passed through Turkish censors before being printed in London and New York. [ 174 ] However, this observer's role was abandoned when the US entered the war, as Fortescue immediately re-enlisted, sustaining wounds at Forest of Argonne in the Meuse-Argonne Offensive , September 1918. [ 175 ] Sebagai contoh, mantan Kapten Angkatan Darat AS Granville Fortescue mengikuti perkembangan dari Kampanye Gallipoli dari perspektif tertanam dalam jajaran pembela Turki, dan laporannya telah disahkan melalui sensor Turki sebelum dicetak di London dan New York. [174] Namun, pengamat peran ini telah ditinggalkan ketika AS memasuki perang, sebagai Fortescue segera kembali terdaftar, mempertahankan luka di Hutan Argonne di Meuse-Argonne Offensive , September 1918. [175]
In-depth observer narratives of the war and more narrowly focused professional journal articles were written soon after the war; and these post-war reports conclusively illustrated the battlefield destructiveness of this conflict. narasi pengamat mendalam dari perang dan lebih difokuskan secara sempit artikel jurnal profesional ditulis segera setelah perang, dan laporan-laporan pasca-perang secara meyakinkan menggambarkan merusak medan konflik ini. This was not the first time the tactics of entrenched positions for infantry defended with machine guns and artillery became vitally important. Ini bukan pertama kalinya posisi mengakar taktik untuk membela infanteri dengan senapan mesin dan artileri menjadi sangat penting. The Russo-Japanese War had been closely observed by Military attachés, war correspondents and other observers; but, from a 21st century perspective, it is now apparent that a range of tactical lessons were disregarded or not used in the preparations for war in Europe and throughout the Great War. [ 176 ] The Perang Rusia-Jepang telah dekat diamati oleh atase Militer, koresponden perang dan pengamat lain, tetapi, dari perspektif abad ke-21, sekarang jelas bahwa berbagai pelajaran taktis diabaikan atau tidak digunakan dalam persiapan perang di Eropa dan selama Perang Besar. [176]
Support and opposition to the war Dukungan dan oposisi terhadap perang
Main articles: Opposition to World War I and French Army Mutinies (1917) Artikel utama: Oposisi terhadap Perang Dunia I dan Angkatan Darat Perancis pemberontakan (1917)
Support Dukungan
The war was primarily supported by nationalists, industrial producers, and imperialists. Perang ini terutama didukung oleh nasionalis, produsen industri, dan imperialis.In the Balkans, Yugoslav nationalists such as Yugoslav nationalist leader Ante Trumbić in the Balkans strongly supported the war, desiring the freedom of Yugoslavs from Austria-Hungary and other foreign powers and the creation of an independent Yugoslavia . [ 177 ] The Yugoslav Committee was formed in Paris on 30 April 1915 but shortly moved its office to London, Trumbić led the Committee. [ 177 ] Di Balkan, Yugoslavia nasionalis seperti pemimpin nasionalis Yugoslavia Ante Trumbić di Balkan sangat mendukung perang, menginginkan kebebasan Yugoslavia dari Austria-Hungaria dan kekuatan asing lainnya dan penciptaan independen Yugoslavia . [177] The Komite Yugoslavia dibentuk di Paris pada 30 April 1915 tapi tak lama pindah kantor ke London, Trumbić memimpin Komite. [177]
In the Middle East, Arab nationalism soared in Ottoman territories in response to the rise of Turkish nationalism during the war, with Arab nationalist leaders advocating the creation of a pan-Arab state. [ 178 ] In 1916, the Arab Revolt began in Ottoman-controlled territories of the Middle East in an effort to achieve independence. [ 178 ] Di Timur Tengah, nasionalisme Arab melambung di wilayah Utsmani dalam menanggapi munculnya nasionalisme Turki selama perang, dengan para pemimpin nasionalis Arab menganjurkan pembentukan pan-Arab negara. [178] Pada tahun 1916, Revolusi Arab dimulai pada Ottoman- wilayah yang dikuasai di Timur Tengah dalam upaya untuk mencapai kemerdekaan. [178]
Italian nationalism was stirred by the outbreak of the war and was initially strongly supported by a variety of political factions. nasionalisme Italia diaduk oleh pecahnya perang dan pada awalnya sangat didukung oleh berbagai faksi politik. One of the most prominent and popular Italian nationalist supporters of the war was Gabriele d'Annunzio who promoted Italian irredentism and helped sway the Italian public to support intervention in the war. [ 179 ] The Italian Liberal Party under the leadership of Paolo Boselli promoted intervention in the war on the side of the Allies and utilised the Dante Aligheri Society to promote Italian nationalism. [ 180 ] Salah satu yang menonjol dan populer Italia pendukung nasionalis sebagian besar perang itu Gabriele d'Annunzio yang dipromosikan Italia irredentism dan membantu goyangan publik Italia untuk mendukung intervensi dalam perang. [179] The Partai Liberal Italia di bawah pimpinan Paolo Boselli dipromosikan intervensi dalam perang di sisi Sekutu dan memanfaatkan Dante Aligheri Masyarakat untuk mempromosikan nasionalisme Italia. [180]
A number of socialist parties initially supported the war when it began in August 1914. [ 181 ] Initially European socialists became split on national lines with the conception of class conflict held by radical socialists such as Marxists and syndicalists being overstepped by their support for war. [ 182 ] Once the war began, Austrian, British, French, German and Russian socialists followed the rising nationalist current by supporting their country's intervention in the war. [ 183 ] Sejumlah partai-partai sosialis awalnya mendukung perang ketika itu dimulai pada bulan Agustus 1914. [181] Pada awalnya sosialis Eropa menjadi split pada baris nasional dengan konsepsi konflik kelas yang dimiliki oleh kaum sosialis radikal seperti Marxis dan sindikalis yang melanggar oleh dukungan mereka untuk perang. [182] Setelah perang dimulai, Austria,, Perancis, Jerman dan Rusia sosialis Inggris mengikuti nasionalis meningkat saat ini dengan mendukung's negara intervensi mereka dalam perang. [183]
Italian socialists were divided on whether to support the war or oppose it, some were militant supporters of the war including Benito Mussolini and Leonida Bissolati . [ 184 ] However the Italian Socialist Party decided to oppose the war after anti-militarist protestors had been killed, resulting in a general strike called Red Week . [ 185 ] The Italian Socialist Party purged itself of pro-war nationalist members, including Mussolini. [ 185 ] Mussolini, a syndicalist who supported the war on grounds of irredentist claims on Italian-populated regions of Austria-Hungary, formed the pro-interventionist Il Popolo d'Italia and the Fasci Riviluzionario d'Azione Internazionalista ("Revolutionary Fasci for International Action") in October 1914 that later developed into the Fasci di Combattimento in 1919 and the origin of fascism. [ 186 ] Mussolini's nationalism enabled him to raise funds from Ansaldo (an armaments firm) and other companies to create Il Popolo d'Italia to convince socialists and revolutionaries to support the war. [ 187 ] sosialis Italia dibagi pada apakah akan mendukung atau menentang perang itu, beberapa orang pendukung militan dari perang termasuk Benito Mussolini dan Leonida Bissolati . [184] Namun Partai Sosialis Italia memutuskan untuk menentang perang setelah pengunjuk rasa anti-militer telah dibunuh, mengakibatkan pemogokan umum disebut Merah Minggu . [185] The Partai Sosialis Italia dibersihkan diri dari perang nasionalis anggota-pro, termasuk Mussolini. [185] Mussolini, seorang sindikalis yang mendukung perang atas dasar klaim irredentist di daerah berpenduduk Italia Austria-Hongaria, membentuk pro-intervensionis Il Popolo d'Italia dan Riviluzionario Fasci d'Azione Internazionalista ("Revolusioner Fasci for International Action ") pada Oktober 1914 yang kemudian dikembangkan menjadi Fasci di Combattimento pada tahun 1919 dan asal-usul fasisme. [186] 's nasionalisme Mussolini memungkinkan dia mengumpulkan dana dari Ansaldo (sebuah perusahaan persenjataan) dan perusahaan lain untuk membuat Il Popolo d'Italia untuk meyakinkan sosialis dan revolusioner untuk mendukung perang. [187]
In April 1918 the Rome Congress of Oppressed Nationalities was held that included Czechoslovak , Italian , Polish , Transylvanian , and Yugoslav representatives that urged the Allies to support national self-determination for the peoples residing within Austria-Hungary . [ 181 ] Pada bulan April 1918 Kongres Roma tentang negara yang tertindas diadakan yang mencakup Cekoslowakia , Italia , Polandia , Transylvania , dan Yugoslavia perwakilan yang mendesak Sekutu untuk mendukung nasional penentuan nasib sendiri bagi masyarakat yang berada di wilayah Austria-Hongaria . [181]
Opposition Oposisi
In Britain , in 1914, the Public Schools Officers' Training Corps annual camp was held at Tidworth Pennings, near Salisbury Plain . Di Inggris , tahun 1914, Sekolah Umum Korps Pelatihan kamp tahunan diadakan di Tidworth Pennings, dekat Salisbury Plain . Head of the British Army Lord Kitchener was to review the cadets , but the immenence of the war prevented him. Kepala Tentara Tuhan Kitchener adalah untuk meninjau kadet , tetapi immenence perang dicegah dia. General Horace Smith-Dorrien was sent instead. Umum Horace Smith-Dorrien dikirim sebagai gantinya. He surprised the two-or-three thousand cadets by declaring (in the words of Donald Christopher Smith, a Bermudian cadet who was present) that war should be avoided at almost any cost, that war would solve nothing, that the whole of Europe and more besides would be reduced to ruin, and that the loss of life would be so large that whole populations would be decimated. Ia mengejutkan dua-atau-tiga ribu taruna dengan menyatakan (dalam kata-kata Donald Christopher Smith, seorang Bermudian kadet yang hadir) bahwa perang harus dihindari di hampir semua biaya, bahwa perang akan memecahkan apa-apa, bahwa seluruh Eropa dan lebih selain akan berkurang merusak, dan bahwa hilangnya kehidupan akan begitu besar bahwa seluruh populasi akan hancur. In our ignorance I, and many of us, felt almost ashamed of a British General who uttered such depressing and unpatriotic sentiments, but during the next four years, those of us who survived the holocaust-probably not more than one-quarter of us - learned how right the General's prognosis was and how courageous he had been to utter it. [ 188 ] Having voiced these sentiments did not hinder Smith-Dorien's career, or preventing him from doing his duty in the First World War to the best of his abilities. Dalam ketidaktahuan kami, aku, dan banyak dari kita, merasa hampir malu Umum Inggris yang diucapkan sentimen menekan dan patriotik tersebut, tetapi selama empat tahun ke depan, mereka yang selamat dari bencana-mungkin tidak lebih dari seperempat dari kami - belajar bagaimana hak Jenderal prognosis dan bagaimana berani dia mengucapkan itu. [188] Setelah menyuarakan sentimen-sentimen itu tidak menghalangi-Dorien karier Smith, atau mencegah dia dari melakukan tugasnya di Perang Dunia Pertama yang terbaik dari kemampuannya .
Many countries jailed those who spoke out against the conflict. Banyak negara dipenjara mereka yang berbicara menentang konflik. These included Eugene Debs in the United States and Bertrand Russell in Britain. Ini termasuk Eugene Debs di Amerika Serikat dan Bertrand Russell di Inggris. In the US, the Espionage Act of 1917 effectively made free speech illegal and many served long prison sentences for statements of fact deemed unpatriotic. Di AS, Undang-Undang Spionase tahun 1917 secara efektif membuat kebebasan berbicara banyak ilegal dan menjalani hukuman penjara yang lama untuk laporan fakta dianggap tidak patriotik. The Sedition Act of 1918 made any statements deemed "disloyal" a federal crime. The Act hasutan tahun 1918 dibuat pernyataan dianggap "tidak loyal" sebuah kejahatan federal. Publications at all critical of the government were removed from circulation by postal censors. [ 99 ] Publikasi di semua kritis terhadap pemerintah telah dihapus dari peredaran oleh sensor pos. [99]
A number of nationalists opposed intervention, particularly within states that the nationalists held hostility to. Irish nationalists staunchly opposed taking part in intervention with the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland . [ 189 ] The war had begun amid the Home Rule crisis in Ireland that had begun in 1912 and by 1914 there was a serious possibility of an outbreak of civil war in Ireland between Irish unionists and republicans. [ 189 ] Irish nationalists and Marxists attempted to pursue Irish independence, culminating in the Easter Rising of 1916, with Germany sending 20,000 rifles to Ireland in order to stir unrest in the United Kingdom. [ 189 ] The UK government placed Ireland under martial law in response to the Easter Rising. [ 190 ] Sejumlah nasionalis menentang intervensi, terutama dalam menyatakan bahwa kaum nasionalis yang diadakan permusuhan untuk. nasionalis Irlandia kukuh menentang mengambil bagian dalam intervensi dengan Kerajaan Inggris Raya dan Irlandia . [189] Perang telah dimulai di tengah krisis Peraturan Rumah di Irlandia yang telah dimulai pada tahun 1912 dan 1914 ada kemungkinan serius dari pecahnya perang saudara di Irlandia antara anggota serikat Irlandia dan republiken. [189] nasionalis Irlandia dan Marxis berusaha untuk mengejar kemerdekaan Irlandia, yang berpuncak pada Paskah Rising tahun 1916, dengan Jerman mengirim 20.000 senapan ke Irlandia untuk aduk kerusuhan di Inggris. [189] Pemerintah Inggris Irlandia ditempatkan di bawah darurat militer dalam menanggapi Paskah Rising. [190]
Other opposition came from conscientious objectors – some socialist, some religious – who refused to fight. oposisi lainnya datang dari penentang teliti - beberapa sosialis, beberapa agama - yang menolak untuk berperang. In Britain 16,000 people asked for conscientious objector status. [ 191 ] Many suffered years of prison, including solitary confinement and bread and water diets. Di Inggris 16.000 orang bertanya status penentang nurani. [191] tahun menderita Banyak dari penjara, termasuk sel isolasi dan roti dan diet air. Even after the war, in Britain many job advertisements were marked "No conscientious objectors need apply". Bahkan setelah perang, di Inggris banyak iklan lowongan pekerjaan ditandai "Tidak penentang teliti perlu diterapkan".
The Central Asian Revolt started in the summer of 1916, when the Russian Empire government ended its exemption of Muslims from military service. [ 192 ] The Asia Tengah Pemberontakan dimulai pada musim panas tahun 1916, ketika Kekaisaran Rusia pemerintah berakhir pembebasan yang Muslim dari dinas militer. [192]
In 1917, a series of mutinies in the French army led to dozens of soldiers being executed and many more imprisoned. Pada tahun 1917, serangkaian pemberontakan dalam tentara Perancis menyebabkan puluhan tentara dieksekusi dan masih banyak lagi dipenjara.
In Milan in May 1917, Bolshevik revolutionaries organised and engaged in rioting calling for an end to the war, and managed to close down factories and stop public transportation. [ 193 ] The Italian army was forced to enter Milan with tanks and machine guns to face Bolsheviks and anarchists who fought violently until May 23 when the army gained control of the city with almost fifty people killed (three of which were Italian soldiers) and over 800 people arrested. [ 193 ] Dalam Milan Mei 1917, Bolshevik revolusioner terorganisir dan terlibat dalam kerusuhan menyerukan untuk mengakhiri perang, dan berhasil menutup pabrik dan menghentikan angkutan umum. [193] Tentara Italia dipaksa untuk memasuki Milan dengan tank dan senapan mesin untuk menghadapi Bolshevik dan anarkis yang berjuang keras sampai dengan 23 Mei ketika tentara menguasai kota dengan lima puluh orang hampir tewas (tiga di antaranya tentara Italia) dan lebih dari 800 orang yang ditangkap. [193]
The Conscription Crisis of 1917 in Canada erupted when conservative Prime Minister Robert Borden brought in compulsory military service over the objection of French-speaking Quebecers . [ 194 ] Out of approximately 625,000 Canadians who served, about 60,000 were killed and another 173,000 were wounded. [ 195 ] Para Krisis Wajib tahun 1917 di Kanada meletus ketika konservatif Perdana Menteri Robert Borden dibawa wajib militer atas keberatan berbahasa Prancis Quebec . [194] Dari sekitar 625.000 Kanada yang menjabat, sekitar 60.000 tewas dan 173.000 lainnya terluka. [ 195]
In 1917, Emperor Charles I of Austria secretly entered into peace negotiations with the Allied powers, with his brother-in-law Sixtus as intermediary, without the knowledge of his ally Germany. Pada tahun 1917, Kaisar Charles I dari Austria diam-diam mengadakan perundingan damai dengan kekuatan-kekuatan Sekutu, dengan saudaranya-in-hukum Sixtus sebagai perantara, tanpa sepengetahuan-Nya sekutu Jerman. He failed, however, because of the resistance of Italy. [ 196 ] Tetapi ia tidak berhasil, karena hambatan dari Italia. [196]
In September 1917, the Russian soldiers in France began questioning why they were fighting for the French at all and mutinied. [ 197 ] In Russia, opposition to the war led to soldiers also establishing their own revolutionary committees and helped foment the October Revolution of 1917, with the call going up for "bread, land, and peace". Pada bulan September 1917, tentara Rusia di Perancis mulai mempertanyakan mengapa mereka berjuang untuk Perancis sama sekali dan memberontak. [197] Di Rusia, menentang perang menyebabkan tentara juga mendirikan komite revolusioner mereka sendiri dan membantu membangkitkan yang Revolusi Oktober 1917 , dengan panggilan tersebut akan di ", tanah roti, dan perdamaian". The Bolsheviks reached a peace treaty with Germany, the peace of Brest-Litovsk , despite its harsh conditions. Bolshevik mencapai perjanjian perdamaian dengan Jerman, perdamaian Brest-Litovsk , walaupun kondisi yang berat tersebut.
The end of October 1918, in northern Germany , saw the beginning of the German Revolution of 1918–19 . Akhir Oktober 1918, di utara Jerman , melihat awal Revolusi Jerman 1918-1919 . Units of the German Navy refused to set sail for a last, large-scale operation in a war which they saw as good as lost, initiating the uprising. Satuan Angkatan Laut Jerman menolak untuk berlayar untuk operasi, yang terakhir skala besar dalam perang yang mereka lihat sebagai baik sebagai kehilangan, memulai pemberontakan. The sailors' revolt which then ensued in the naval ports of Wilhelmshaven and Kiel spread across the whole country within days and led to the proclamation of a republic on 9 November 1918 and shortly thereafter to the abdication of Kaiser Wilhelm II . Para pelaut 'pemberontakan yang kemudian pun terjadi di pelabuhan laut dari Wilhelmshaven dan Kiel tersebar di seluruh negeri dalam beberapa hari dan menyebabkan proklamasi republik pada tanggal 9 Nopember 1918 dan tidak lama kemudian dengan pelepasan Kaiser Wilhelm II .
Conscription Wajib militer
As the war slowly turned into a war of attrition , conscription was implemented in some countries. Sebagai perang perlahan berubah menjadi perang attrition , wajib militer diterapkan di beberapa negara. This issue was particularly explosive in Canada and Australia. Masalah ini terutama ledakan di Kanada dan Australia. In the former it opened a political gap between French-Canadians, who claimed their true loyalty was to Canada and not the British Empire, and the Anglophone majority who saw the war as a duty to both Britain and Canada. Dalam mantan itu membuka celah politik antara Perancis-Kanada, yang menyatakan kesetiaan sejati mereka ke Kanada dan bukan Kerajaan Inggris, dan mayoritas Anglophone yang melihat perang sebagai tugas untuk baik Inggris dan Kanada. Prime Minister Robert Borden pushed through a Military Service Act , provoking the Conscription Crisis of 1917 . Perdana Menteri Robert Borden didorong melalui Militer Service Act , memprovokasi Krisis Wajib tahun 1917 . In Australia, a sustained pro-conscription campaign by Prime Minister Billy Hughes , caused a split in the Australian Labor Party and Hughes formed the Nationalist Party of Australia in 1917 to pursue the matter. Di Australia, kampanye pro-wajib militer ditopang oleh Perdana Menteri Billy Hughes , menyebabkan perpecahan di Partai Buruh Australia dan Hughes membentuk Partai Nasionalis Australia pada tahun 1917 untuk mengejar masalah ini. Nevertheless, the labour movement , the Catholic Church, and Irish nationalist expatriates successfully opposed Hughes' push, which was rejected in two plebiscites . Namun demikian, gerakan buruh , Gereja Katolik, dan nasionalis Irlandia ekspatriat berhasil menentang 'mendorong Hughes, yang ditolak dalam dua plebisit .Conscription put into uniform nearly every physically fit man in Britain, six of ten million eligible. Pengerahan dimasukkan ke dalam seragam hampir setiap orang sehat secara fisik di Inggris, enam dari sepuluh juta layak. Of these, about 750,000 lost their lives and 1,700,000 were wounded. Dari jumlah tersebut, sekitar 750.000 kehilangan kehidupan mereka dan 1.700.000 terluka. Most deaths were to young unmarried men; however, 160,000 wives lost husbands and 300,000 children lost fathers. [ 198 ] Sebagian besar kematian adalah untuk laki-laki muda yang belum menikah,, 160.000 istri mereka kehilangan suami dan 300.000 anak-anak kehilangan ayah. Namun [198]
Aftermath Buntut
Main article: Aftermath of World War I Artikel utama: Dampak Perang Dunia I
Health and economic effects Kesehatan dan dampak ekonomi
| ..."Strange, friend," I said, "Here is no cause to mourn." ... "Aneh, teman," kataku, "Ini ada alasan untuk meratap." "None," said the other, "Save the undone years"... "Tidak ada," kata yang lain, "Simpan tahun dibatalkan" ... |
| — Wilfred Owen , Strange Meeting , 1918 [ 140 ] - Owen Wilfred , Rapat Aneh, 1918 [140] |
The war had profound economic consequences. Perang telah konsekuensi ekonomi yang mendalam. Of the 60 million European soldiers who were mobilised from 1914–1918, 8 million were killed, 7 million were permanently disabled, and 15 million were seriously injured. Dari 60 juta tentara Eropa yang dimobilisasi 1914-1918, 8 juta tewas, 7 juta adalah cacat permanen, dan 15 juta luka berat. Germany lost 15.1% of its active male population, Austria–Hungary lost 17.1%, and France lost 10.5%. [ 201 ] About 750,000 German civilians died from starvation caused by the British blockade during the war. [ 202 ] By the end of the war, famine had killed approximately 100,000 people in Lebanon. [ 203 ] The best estimates of the death toll from the Russian famine of 1921 run from 5 million to 10 million people. [ 204 ] By 1922, there were between 4.5 million and 7 million homeless children in Russia as a result of nearly a decade of devastation from World War I, the Russian Civil War, and the subsequent famine of 1920–1922. [ 205 ] Numerous anti-Soviet Russians fled the country after the Revolution; by the 1930s the northern Chinese city of Harbin had 100,000 Russians. [ 206 ] Thousands more emigrated to France, England and the United States. Jerman kalah 15,1% penduduk laki-laki yang aktif, Austria-Hungaria hilang 17,1%, dan Perancis kehilangan 10,5%. [201] Tentang 750.000 warga sipil Jerman meninggal karena kelaparan yang disebabkan oleh blokade Inggris selama perang. [202] Pada akhir perang, kelaparan telah membunuh sekitar 100.000 orang di Libanon. [203] perkiraan terbaik jumlah korban tewas dari kelaparan Rusia tahun 1921 menjalankan 5-1000000 orang. [204] Di tahun 1922, ada antara 4,5 juta dan 7 juta pada anak-anak Rusia sebagai akibat dari hampir satu dekade kehancuran dari Perang Dunia I, Perang Saudara Rusia, dan berikutnya kelaparan 1920-1922. tunawisma [205] Banyak anti-Soviet Rusia melarikan diri setelah Revolusi, oleh 1930-an kota Cina utara Harbin telah 100.000 Rusia. [206] Ribuan lebih beremigrasi ke Perancis, Inggris dan Amerika Serikat.
Lobbying by Chaim Weizmann and fear that American Jews would encourage the USA to support Germany culminated in the British government's Balfour Declaration of 1917 , endorsing creation of a Jewish homeland in Palestine . [ 212 ] A total of more than 1,172,000 Jewish soldiers served in the Allied and Central Power forces in World War I, including 450,000 in Czarist Russia and 275,000 in Austria-Hungary. [ 213 ] [ dead link ] Lobi oleh Chaim Weizmann dan takut bahwa Yahudi Amerika akan mendorong Amerika Serikat untuk mendukung Jerman memuncak dalam pemerintah Inggris Deklarasi Balfour tahun 1917 , mendukung pembentukan tanah air Yahudi di Palestina . [212] Sebanyak lebih dari 1.172.000 prajurit Yahudi disajikan di Sekutu dan Central Power pasukan dalam Perang Dunia I, termasuk 450.000 di Tsar Rusia dan 275.000 di Austria-Hungaria. [213] [ dead link ]
The social disruption and widespread violence of the Revolution of 1917 and the ensuing Russian Civil War sparked more than 2,000 pogroms in the former Russian Empire, mostly in the Ukraine . [ 214 ] An estimated 60,000–200,000 civilian Jews were killed in the atrocities. [ 215 ] Gangguan sosial dan kekerasan yang luas dari Revolusi tahun 1917 dan berikutnya Perang Saudara Rusia memicu lebih dari 2.000 pogrom di Kekaisaran Rusia mantan, terutama di Ukraina . [214] Sebuah 60,000-200,000 diperkirakan Yahudi sipil tewas dalam kekejaman. [ 215]
In the aftermath of World War I, Greece fought against Turkish nationalists led by Mustafa Kemal , a war which resulted in a massive population exchange between the two countries under the Treaty of Lausanne . [ 216 ] According to various sources, [ 217 ] several hundred thousand Pontic Greeks died during this period. [ 218 ] Pada masa setelah Perang Dunia I, Yunani berjuang melawan nasionalis Turki dipimpin oleh Mustafa Kemal , perang yang menghasilkan pertukaran populasi besar-besaran antara kedua negara di bawah Perjanjian Lausanne . [216] Menurut berbagai sumber, [217] beberapa ratus ribu Pontic Yunani meninggal selama periode ini. [218]
Peace treaties and national boundaries Perjanjian perdamaian dan batas-batas nasional
After the war, the Paris Peace Conference imposed a series of peace treaties on the Central Powers. Setelah perang, Konferensi Perdamaian Paris dikenakan serangkaian perjanjian perdamaian di Blok Sentral. The 1919 Treaty of Versailles officially ended the war. The 1919 Perjanjian Versailles secara resmi berakhir perang. Building on Wilson's 14th point , the Treaty of Versailles also brought into being the League of Nations on 28 June 1919. [ 219 ] [ 220 ] Membangun 14 titik's Wilson , Perjanjian Versailles juga dibawa ke menjadi Liga Bangsa-Bangsa pada tanggal 28 Juni 1919. [219] [220]In signing the treaty, Germany acknowledged responsibility for the war, agreeing to pay enormous war reparations and award territory to the victors. Dalam penandatanganan perjanjian tersebut, Jerman mengakui tanggung jawab perang, setuju untuk membayar besar reparasi perang dan wilayah penghargaan kepada para pemenang. The "Guilt Thesis" became a controversial explanation of later events among analysts in Britain and the United States. The "Rasa Bersalah Tesis" menjadi penjelasan kontroversial peristiwa kemudian antara analis di Inggris dan Amerika Serikat. The Treaty of Versailles caused enormous bitterness in Germany, which nationalist movements, especially the Nazis , exploited with a conspiracy theory they called the Dolchstosslegende ( Stab-in-the-back legend ). Perjanjian Versailles menyebabkan kepahitan besar di Jerman, yang gerakan nasionalis, terutama Nazi , dieksploitasi dengan teori konspirasi yang mereka sebut Dolchstosslegende ( -in-the-back legenda Stab ). The Weimar Republic lost the former colonial possessions and was saddled with accepting blame for the war, as well as paying punitive reparations for it. Para Republik Weimar kehilangan mantan harta kolonial dan dibebani dengan menerima menyalahkan untuk perang, serta menghukum membayar reparasi untuk itu. Unable to pay them with exports (a result of territorial losses and postwar recession), [ 221 ] Germany did so by borrowing from the United States. Tidak dapat membayar mereka dengan ekspor (akibat kerugian teritorial dan resesi sesudah perang), [221] Jerman melakukannya dengan meminjam dari Amerika Serikat. Runaway inflation in the 1920s contributed to the economic collapse of the Weimar Republic and the reparations were suspended in 1931 following the Stock Market Crash in 1929 and the beginnings of the Great Depression worldwide. Runaway inflasi pada tahun 1920 memberikan kontribusi kepada keruntuhan ekonomi dari Republik Weimar dan reparasi dihentikan pada tahun 1931 menyusul Stock Market Crash pada tahun 1929 dan awal dari Depresi Besar di seluruh dunia.
Austria–Hungary was partitioned into several successor states, including Austria, Hungary, Czechoslovakia , and Yugoslavia , largely but not entirely along ethnic lines. Transylvania was shifted from Hungary to Greater Romania . Austria-Hongaria dibagi menjadi beberapa negara bagian penggantinya, termasuk Austria, Hungaria, Cekoslovakia , dan Yugoslavia , sebagian besar tapi tidak sepenuhnya di sepanjang garis etnis. Transylvania dialihkan dari Hungaria ke Greater Rumania . The details were contained in the Treaty of Saint-Germain and the Treaty of Trianon . Rincian yang terkandung dalam Perjanjian Saint-Germain dan Perjanjian Trianon . As a result of the Treaty of Trianon , 3.3 million Hungarians came under foreign rule. Sebagai hasil dari Perjanjian Trianon , 3,3 juta Hongaria berada di bawah kekuasaan asing. Although the Hungarians made up 54% of the population of the pre-war Kingdom of Hungary , only 32% of its territory was left to Hungary. Meskipun Hongaria terdiri 54% dari populasi sebelum perang Kerajaan Hongaria , hanya 32% dari wilayahnya adalah kiri ke Hongaria. Between 1920 and 1924, 354,000 Hungarians fled former Hungarian territories attached to Romania , Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia . Antara 1920 dan 1924, 354.000 Hongaria melarikan diri wilayah Hongaria mantan melekat pada Rumania , Cekoslowakia dan Yugoslavia .
The Russian Empire, which had withdrawn from the war in 1917 after the October Revolution , lost much of its western frontier as the newly independent nations of Estonia , Finland, Latvia , Lithuania , and Poland were carved from it. Bessarabia was re-attached to the Greater Romania , as it had been a Romanian territory for more than a thousand years. [ 222 ] Kekaisaran Rusia, yang telah ditarik dari perang pada tahun 1917 setelah Revolusi Oktober , kehilangan banyak dari perbatasan barat sebagai bangsa yang baru merdeka dari Estonia , Finlandia, Latvia , Lithuania , dan Polandia yang diukir dari itu. Bessarabia itu kembali melekat tersebut Greater Rumania , seperti telah menjadi wilayah Rumania selama lebih dari seribu tahun. [222]
The Ottoman Empire disintegrated, and much of its non- Anatolian territory was awarded as protectorates of various Allied powers. Kekaisaran Ottoman hancur, dan banyak dari non- Anatolia wilayah mendapat penghargaan sebagai protektorat dari berbagai kekuatan Sekutu. The Turkish core was reorganised as the Republic of Turkey . Inti Turki direorganisasi sebagai Republik Turki . The Ottoman Empire was to be partitioned by the Treaty of Sèvres in 1920. Kekaisaran Ottoman adalah dipartisi oleh Perjanjian Sèvres pada tahun 1920. This treaty was never ratified by the Sultan and was rejected by the Turkish republican movement , leading to the Turkish Independence War and, ultimately, to the 1923 Treaty of Lausanne . perjanjian ini tidak pernah diratifikasi oleh Sultan dan ditolak oleh gerakan republik Turki , yang mengarah ke Perang Kemerdekaan Turki dan, akhirnya, untuk tahun 1923 Perjanjian Lausanne .
Legacy Warisan
Main articles: World War I in art and literature , Media of World War I , and War memorial Artikel utama: Perang Dunia I dalam seni dan sastra , Media Perang Dunia I , dan Perang peringatan
The first tentative efforts to comprehend the meaning and consequences of modern warfare began during the initial phases of the war, and this process continued throughout and after the end of hostilities. Upaya tentatif pertama untuk memahami makna dan konsekuensi dari peperangan modern dimulai selama fase awal perang, dan proses ini terus berlanjut sepanjang dan setelah berakhirnya permusuhan. Memorials Kenangan
Cultural memory Budaya memori
The First World War had a lasting impact on social memory. Perang Dunia Pertama memiliki dampak abadi pada memori sosial. It was seen by many in Britain as signalling the end of Victorian England , and across Europe many regarded it as a watershed moment. [ 225 ] Historian Samuel Hynes explained: Hal itu terlihat oleh banyak orang di Inggris sebagai menandakan akhir dari Inggris Victoria dan di Eropa banyak dianggap sebagai DAS. saat, [225] Sejarawan Samuel Hynes menjelaskan:This has become the most common perception of the First World War, perpetuated by the art, cinema, poems and stories published subsequently. Hal ini telah menjadi persepsi yang paling umum dari Perang Dunia Pertama, diabadikan oleh, bioskop seni, puisi dan cerita diterbitkan kemudian. Films such as All Quiet on the Western Front , Paths of Glory and For King and Country have perpetuated the idea; while war-time films including Camrades , Flanders Poppies and Shoulder Arms indicate that the most contemporary views of the war were overall far more positive. [ 227 ] Likewise, the art of Paul Nash , John Nash , Christopher Nevison and Henry Tonks in Britain painted a negative view of the conflict in keeping with the growing perception, while popular war-time artists such as Muirhead Bone painted more serene and pleasant interpretations subsequently rejected as inaccurate. [ 226 ] Several historians have since countered these interpretations: Film seperti Semua Tenang di Front Barat , Jalan Kemuliaan dan Untuk Raja dan Negara telah mengabadikan ide, sedangkan masa perang film termasuk Camrades, Flanders Poppies dan Senjata Bahu menunjukkan bahwa pandangan yang paling kontemporer perang itu secara keseluruhan jauh lebih positif . [227] Demikian juga, seni Paul Nash , John Nash , Christopher Nevison dan Henry Tonks di Inggris dicat pandangan negatif dari konflik sesuai dengan persepsi berkembang, sementara populer masa perang artis seperti Muirhead Bone dicat lebih tenang dan interpretasi menyenangkan kemudian ditolak sebagai tidak akurat. [226] Beberapa sejarawan sejak balas interpretasi ini:A generation of innocent young men, their heads full of high abstractions like Honour, Glory and England, went off to war to make the world safe for democracy. Sebuah generasi anak muda yang tidak bersalah, kepala mereka penuh abstraksi tinggi seperti Kehormatan, Glory dan Inggris, pergi berperang untuk membuat dunia aman bagi demokrasi. They were slaughtered in stupid battles planned by stupid generals. Mereka dibantai dalam pertempuran bodoh direncanakan oleh jenderal bodoh. Those who survived were shocked, disillusioned and embittered by their war experiences, and saw that their real enemies were not the Germans, but the old men at home who had lied to them. Mereka yang selamat terkejut, kecewa dan sakit hati oleh pengalaman perang mereka, dan melihat bahwa musuh-musuh mereka yang sebenarnya tidak orang Jerman, tetapi orang-orang tua di rumah yang telah berbohong kepada mereka. They rejected the values of the society that had sent them to war, and in doing so separated their own generation from the past and from their cultural inheritance. [ 226 ] Mereka menolak nilai-nilai masyarakat yang telah mengirim mereka untuk berperang, dan dengan berbuat demikian dipisahkan generasi mereka sendiri dari masa lalu dan dari warisan budaya mereka. [226]
These beliefs did not become widely shared because they offered the only accurate interpretation of wartime events. Keyakinan ini tidak menjadi luas bersama karena mereka menawarkan penafsiran hanya akurat peristiwa masa perang. In every respect, the war was much more complicated than they suggest. Dalam segala hal, perang jauh lebih rumit dari yang mereka sarankan. In recent years, historians have argued persuasively against almost every popular cliché of the First World War. Dalam beberapa tahun terakhir, sejarawan berpendapat bahwa persuasif terhadap hampir setiap klise populer dari Perang Dunia Pertama. It has been pointed out that, although the losses were devastating, their greatest impact was socially and geographically limited. Ini telah menunjukkan bahwa, meskipun kerugian yang dahsyat, dampaknya terbesar adalah sosial dan geografis terbatas. The many emotions other than horror experienced by soldiers in and out of the front line, including comradeship, boredom and even enjoyment, have been recognised. Banyak emosi selain horor yang dialami oleh tentara masuk dan keluar dari garis depan, termasuk perkawanan, kebosanan dan bahkan kenikmatan, telah diakui. The war is not now seen as a 'fight about nothing', but as a war of ideals, a struggle between aggressive militarism and more or less liberal democracy . Perang sudah tidak sekarang dipandang sebagai 'a' bertengkar tentang apa-apa, tetapi sebagai perang cita-cita, sebuah perjuangan antara militerisme agresif dan kurang lebih demokrasi liberal . It has been acknowledged that British generals were often capable men facing difficult challenges, and that it was under their command that the British army played a major part in the defeat of the Germans in 1918: a great forgotten victory. [ 227 ] Telah mengakui bahwa jenderal Inggris sering orang mampu menghadapi tantangan sulit, dan bahwa itu adalah di bawah komando mereka bahwa tentara Inggris memainkan peranan besar dalam kekalahan Jerman pada tahun 1918: besar. Kemenangan terlupakan [227]Though these historians have discounted as "myths" [ 226 ] [ 228 ] these perceptions of the war, they are nevertheless prevalent across much of society. [ citation needed ] They have dynamically changed according to contemporary influences, reflecting in the 1950s perceptions of the war as 'aimless' following the contrasting Second World War, and emphasising conflict within the ranks during times of class conflict in the 1960s. [ 227 ] The majority of additions to the contrary are often rejected. [ 227 ] Meskipun sejarawan ini memiliki potongan sebagai "mitos" [226] [228] persepsi ini perang, mereka tetap lazim di seluruh sebagian besar masyarakat. [ rujukan? ] Mereka telah secara dinamis berubah sesuai dengan pengaruh kontemporer, mencerminkan pada 1950-an persepsi perang sebagai 'tanpa tujuan' setelah Perang Dunia Kedua kontras, dan menekankan konflik dalam jajaran selama masa konflik kelas pada tahun 1960. [227] Mayoritas penambahan sebaliknya sering ditolak. [227]
Social trauma Sosial trauma
The social trauma caused by unprecedented rates of casualties manifested itself in different ways, which have been the subject of subsequent historical debate. [ 229 ] Some people [ who? ] were revolted by nationalism and its results, and so they began to work towards a more internationalist world, supporting organisations such as the League of Nations . Pacifism became increasingly popular. Trauma sosial yang disebabkan oleh tingkat belum pernah terjadi sebelumnya korban terwujud dengan cara yang berbeda, yang telah subyek perdebatan sejarah berikutnya. [229] Beberapa orang [ siapa? ] adalah memberontak oleh nasionalisme dan hasilnya, dan sehingga mereka mulai bekerja menuju lebih internasionalis dunia, mendukung organisasi-organisasi seperti Liga Bangsa-Bangsa . pasifisme menjadi semakin populer. Others had the opposite reaction, feeling that only strength and military could be relied upon in a chaotic and inhumane world. Anti-modernist views were an outgrowth of the many changes taking place in society. Lain memiliki reaksi yang berlawanan, merasa bahwa hanya kekuatan dan militer bisa diandalkan dalam dunia kacau dan tidak manusiawi. Anti-modernis pandangan itu merupakan perkembangan dari banyak perubahan yang terjadi di masyarakat.
Discontent in Germany Ketidakpuasan di Jerman
The rise of Nazism and fascism included a revival of the nationalist spirit and a rejection of many post-war changes. Bangkitnya Nazisme dan fasisme termasuk kebangkitan semangat nasionalis dan penolakan terhadap perubahan pasca-perang banyak. Similarly, the popularity of the Stab-in-the-back legend (German: Dolchstoßlegende ) was a testament to the psychological state of defeated Germany and was a rejection of responsibility for the conflict. Demikian pula, popularitas -in-the-back legenda Stab (Jerman: Dolchstoßlegende) adalah bukti dari keadaan psikologis Jerman kalah dan penolakan terhadap tanggung jawab untuk konflik. This conspiracy theory of betrayal became common, and the German populace came to see themselves as victims. Ini teori konspirasi pengkhianatan menjadi umum, dan rakyat Jerman datang untuk melihat diri mereka sebagai korban. The Dolchstoßlegende' s popular acceptance in Germany played a significant role in the rise of Nazism. The Dolchstoßlegende 's penerimaan populer di Jerman memainkan peran penting dalam kebangkitan Nazisme. A sense of disillusionment and cynicism became pronounced, with nihilism growing. Rasa kekecewaan dan sinisme menjadi diucapkan, dengan nihilisme berkembang. Many believed the war heralded the end of the world as they had known it because of the high fatalities among a generation of men, the dissolution of governments and empires, and the collapse of capitalism and imperialism . Banyak yang percaya perang menandakan akhir dunia karena mereka telah mengetahui hal itu karena kematian tinggi di antara generasi laki-laki, pembubaran pemerintah dan kerajaan, dan runtuhnya kapitalisme dan imperialisme .Communist and socialist movements around the world drew strength from this theory and enjoyed a new level of popularity. gerakan Komunis dan sosialis seluruh dunia menarik kekuatan dari teori ini dan menikmati tingkat baru popularitas. These feelings were most pronounced in areas directly or harshly affected by the war. Perasaan ini yang paling menonjol di daerah langsung atau kasar dipengaruhi oleh perang. Out of German discontent with the still controversial Treaty of Versailles , Adolf Hitler was able to gain popularity and power. [ 233 ] [ 234 ] World War II was in part a continuation of the power struggle never fully resolved by the First World War; in fact, it was common for Germans in the 1930s and 1940s to justify acts of international aggression because of perceived injustices imposed by the victors of the First World War. [ 235 ] [ 236 ] [ 237 ] Dari ketidakpuasan Jerman dengan masih kontroversial Perjanjian Versailles , Adolf Hitler mampu memperoleh popularitas dan kekuasaan. [233] [234] Perang Dunia II sebagian merupakan kelanjutan dari perebutan kekuasaan tidak pernah sepenuhnya diselesaikan oleh Perang Dunia Pertama, di Bahkan, hal itu biasa bagi Jerman di tahun 1930-an dan 1940-an untuk membenarkan tindakan agresi internasional karena ketidakadilan dirasakan dipaksakan oleh pemenang dari Perang Dunia Pertama. [235] [236] [237]
The establishment of the modern state of Israel and the roots of the continuing Israeli-Palestinian Conflict are partially found in the unstable power dynamics of the Middle East which resulted from World War I. [ 238 ] Prior to the end of the war, the Ottoman Empire had maintained a modest level of peace and stability throughout the Middle East. [ 239 ] With the fall of Ottoman government, power vacuums developed and conflicting claims to land and nationhood began to emerge. [ 240 ] The political boundaries drawn by the victors of the First World War were quickly imposed, sometimes after only cursory consultation with the local population. Pembentukan negara modern Israel dan akar terus Konflik Israel-Palestina yang sebagian ditemukan dalam dinamika kekuasaan yang tidak stabil di Timur Tengah yang berasal dari Perang Dunia I. [238] Sebelum akhir perang, Ottoman Kekaisaran telah mempertahankan tingkat sederhana perdamaian dan stabilitas di seluruh Timur Tengah. [239] Dengan jatuhnya pemerintahan Ottoman, Vacuums daya dikembangkan dan klaim yang saling bertentangan atas tanah dan kebangsaan mulai muncul. [240] The politik batas-batas yang ditarik oleh pemenang dari Perang Dunia Pertama dengan cepat diberlakukan, hanya kadang-kadang setelah konsultasi sepintas dengan penduduk setempat. In many cases, these continue to be problematic in the 21st-century struggles for national identity . [ 241 ] [ 242 ] While the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire at the end of World War I was pivotal in contributing to the modern political situation of the Middle East, including the Arab-Israeli conflict , [ 243 ] [ 244 ] [ 245 ] the end of Ottoman rule also spawned lesser known disputes over water and other natural resources. [ 246 ] Dalam banyak kasus, ini terus menjadi masalah di abad ke-21 perjuangan untuk identitas nasional . [241] [242] Sedangkan pembubaran Kekaisaran Ottoman pada akhir Perang Dunia I adalah penting dalam memberikan kontribusi bagi situasi politik modern dari Timur Tengah, termasuk konflik Arab-Israel , [243] [244] [245] akhir pemerintahan Ottoman juga melahirkan sengketa yang kurang dikenal di atas air dan sumber daya alam lainnya. [246]
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